Protein tyrosine kinases (“PTKs”) play an important role in the control of cell growth and differentiation. PTKs comprise a large and diverse class of proteins having enzymatic activity. PTKs can be of the receptor-type (having extracellular, transmembrane and intracellular domains) or the non-receptor type (being wholly intracellular). For example, signal transduction mediated by receptor tyrosine kinases (“RTKs”) is initiated by extracellular interaction with a specific growth factor (i.e., a ligand), followed by receptor dimerization, transient stimulation of the intrinsic protein tyrosine kinase activity and phosphorylation. Binding sites are thereby created for intracellular signal transduction molecules and lead to the formation of complexes with a spectrum of cytoplasmic signaling molecules that facilitate the appropriate cellular response (e.g., cell division, metabolic homeostasis, and responses to the extracellular microenvironment).
With respect to RTKs, it has been shown also that tyrosine phosphorylation sites function as high-affinity binding sites for SH2 (src homology) domains of signaling molecules. Several intracellular substrate proteins that associate with RTKs have been identified and are divided into two principal groups: (1) substrates which have a catalytic domain; and (2) substrates which lack a catalytic domain but serve as adapters and associate with catalytically active molecules. The specificity of the interactions between receptors or proteins and SH2 domains of their substrates is determined by the amino acid residues immediately surrounding the phosphorylated tyrosine residue. Differences in binding affinities between SH2 domains and the amino acid sequences surrounding the phosphotyrosine residues on particular receptors are consistent with the observed differences in their substrate phosphorylation profiles. These observations suggest that the function of each RTK is determined not only by its pattern of expression and ligand availability, but also by the array of downstream signal transduction pathways that are activated by a particular receptor. Thus, phosphorylation provides an important regulatory step which determines the selectivity of signaling pathways recruited by specific growth factor receptors, as well as differentiation factor receptors.
The RTKs comprise a large family of transmembrane receptors with diverse biological activities. The intrinsic function of RTKs is activated upon ligand binding, which results in phosphorylation of the receptor and multiple cellular substrates, and subsequently in a variety of cellular responses. At present, at least nineteen distinct RTK subfamilies have been identified. One RTK subfamily, designated the HER subfamily, is believed to be comprised of EGFR, HER2, HER3 and HER4. Ligands to the HER subfamily of receptors include epithelial growth factor (EGF). TGF-α, amphiregulin, HB-EGF, betacellulin and heregulin. The second subfamily of RTKs, designated the insulin subfamily, is comprised of the INS-R, the IGF-1R and the IR-R. The third RTK subfamily, the “PDGF” family, includes the PDGF α and β receptors, CSFIR, c-kit and FLK-II. Another subfamily of RTKs, identified as the FLK family, is believed to be comprised of the kinase insert domain-receptor fetal liver kinase-1 (KDR/FLK-1), the fetal liver kinase 4 (FLK-4) and the fins-like tyrosine kinase 1 (flt-1). Each of these receptors was initially believed to be a receptor for hematopoietic growth factors. Two other subfamilies of RTKs have been designated as the FGF receptor family (FGFR1, FGFR2, FGFR3 and FGFR4) and the Met subfamily (c-met and Ron). Because of the similarities between the PDGF and FLK subfamilies, the two subfamilies are often considered together. The known RTK subfamilies are identified in Plowman et al, 1994, DN&P 7(6): 334-339, which is incorporated herein by reference.
The non-receptor tyrosine kinases represent a collection of cellular enzymes which lack extracellular and transmembrane sequences. At present, over twenty-four individual non-receptor tyrosine kinases, comprising eleven subfamilies (Src, Frk, Btk, Csk, Abl, Zap70, Fes/Fps, Fak, Jak, Ack and LIMK) have been identified. At present, the Src subfamily of non-receptor tyrosine kinases is comprised of the largest number of PTKs, and include Src, Yes, Fyn, Lyn, Lck, Blk, Hck, Fgr and Yrk. The Src subfamily of enzymes has been linked to oncogenesis. A more detailed discussion of non-receptor tyrosine kinases is provided in Bolen. 1993, Oncogene 8: 2025-2031, which is incorporated herein by reference.
Many of the protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), whether an RTK or non-receptor tyrosine kinase, have been found to be involved in cellular signaling pathways leading to cellular signal cascades and pathogenic conditions such as cancer, psoriasis and hyper immune responses. In view of the importance of PTKs to the control, regulation and modulation of cell proliferation and the diseases and disorders associated with abnormal cell proliferation, many attempts have been made to identify receptor and non-receptor tyrosine kinase “inhibitors” using a variety of approaches, including the use of mutant ligands (U.S. Pat. No. 4,966,849), soluble receptors and antibodies (Kendall & Thomas, 1994, Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci 90: 10705-09; Kim, et al, 1993, Nature 362: 841-844), RNA ligands (Jellinek, et al, Biochemistry 33: 10450-56); Takano, et al, 1993, Mol. Bio. Cell 4:358A; Kinsella, et al, 1992, Exp. Cell Res. 199: 56-62; Wright, et al, 1992, J. Cellular Phys. 152: 448-57) and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (U.S. Pat. No. 5,330,992; Mariani, et al, 1994, Proc. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. 35: 2268).
More recently, attempts have been made to identify small molecules which act as tyrosine kinase inhibitors. For example, bis monocyclic, bicyclic or heterocyclic aryl compounds (PCT Application No. WO 92/20642), vinylene-azaindole derivatives (PCT Application No. WO 94/14808) and 1-cyclopropyl-4-pyridyl-quinolones (U.S. Pat. No. 5,330,992) have been described generally as tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Styryl compounds (U.S. Pat. No. 5,217,999), styryl-substituted pyridyl compounds (U.S. Pat. No. 5,302,606), certain quinazoline derivatives (EP Application No. 0 566 266 A1), seleoindoles and selenides (PCT Application No. WO 94/03427), tricyclic polyhydroxylic compounds (PCT Application No. WO 92/21660) and benzylphosphonic acid compounds (PCT Application No. WO 91/15495) have been described as compounds for use as tyrosine kinase inhibitors for use in the treatment of cancer.
In addition, other small molecules were studied as tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as the compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,765,012; 6,541,504; 6,747,025; 5,792,783; 5,834,504; 5,883,113; 5,883,116 and 5,886,020, all of which are incorporated by reference in their entireties.
The identification and use of compounds which specifically inhibit signal transduction by modulating the activity of receptor and non-receptor tyrosine is one aspect of the present invention.